Three Big Ideas About Child Development Young People Essay Essays

Three Big Ideas About Child Development Young People Essay Essays Three Big Ideas About Child Development Young People Essay Essay Three Big Ideas About Child Development Young People Essay Essay Understanding kid development means that we as carers and parents can understand accomplishments and typical behavior of kids within our attention, supplying an environment which is fostering and one that will further growing. Laura Berk ( 2000 ) provides a simple definition of kid development ; a field of survey devoted to understanding all facets of human growing and alteration from construct through adolescence. ( Berk: 2000, p4 ) . This paper will look at three of import theories of kid development that you as a instructor or parent should cognize in order to understand the alterations that take topographic point from birth to maturity. When we talk about kid development we refer to three phases called development countries ; Physical development involves the growing and alteration in a individual s organic structure and organic structure maps. In this sphere we look at the physiological and motor development every bit good as the influences of wellness, unwellness and nutrition. Cognitive development refers to the growing and alteration of a individual s ability to treat information, work out jobs and derive cognition. In this country we consider the survey of encephalon development, memory, acquisition, thought, linguistic communication and creativeness. Social-emotional development involves the growing and alteration of our interactions with others and our feelings. Included in this country is the survey of relationships, emotions, personality and moral development. Whilst we discuss each country of development individually it is of import to gain that they do overlap. One sphere can act upon the other. Interest in the field of kid development began early in the 20th-century. ( ref ) Many theories have been put frontward to explicate why and how kids develop. Theorist Jean Piaget played a major influence on the manner we understand kids. He explained kids s development in footings of their cognitive development in a theory known as Piaget s theory of cognitive development. Piaget believed that kids think otherwise from grownups, reasoning that it s non that kids know less than grownups but their thought accomplishments are qualitatively different. ( ref ) Many of his thoughts came from detecting his ain kids. Piaget was convinced that intellect grows through procedures he termed assimilation and adjustment. Assimilation refers to utilizing bing mental forms in new state of affairss. ( ref ) In adjustment, bing thoughts are modified to suit new demands. Therefore, new state of affairss are assimilated to bing thoughts, and new thoughts are created to suit new experiences. In his theory kids mature through a series of distinguishable phases in rational development. Sensorimotor ( 0-2years ) : Piaget believed that an baby is born with no manner of doing sense of the universe. Babies use physiological reactions which act on the universe in specific ways so that the kid bit by bit adapts to the universe. Motor motions are seen as the footing for the eventual development of intelligence. These easy become separated from motor activity as the kid learns to stand for objects, actions and ideas through drama and linguistic communication. Harmonizing to Piaget, object permanency emerges during babyhood. This relates to the apprehension that objects continue to be even though they are out of sight. Preoperational ( 2-7 old ages ) : Piaget describes yearling s thought as unlogical. This is due to two chief features of their thought processes ; egocentricism and centation. Piaget sees immature kids s thought as egoistic ; intending they can merely see things from their point of position. They can non take into history the thoughts or demands of others. Due to their phase of cognitive development their thought is non yet flexible plenty to see more than one facet of a given state of affairs. They are now in a phase of egoistic thought. ( ref ) . Centration is the term Piaget uses to depict immature kids s inclination to concentrate their attending on a individual facet of a state of affairs or object. This is where Piaget s experiment for the preservation of volume. This phase of development besides describes yearlings holding improved memory accomplishments, job work outing accomplishments and get down to understand constructs ; for illustration, words such as big and small , colorss and the ability to declaim Numberss. ( ref ) As kids progress into pre-school, kids practise mental representations by utilizing mental imagination and linguistic communication symbols. ( Ref ) Concreter Operational ( 7-12years ) : The typical school aged kid is come ining this phase of development. Children begin to believe logically nevertheless, they tend to necessitate concrete objects to assist them work out jobs instead than being able to utilize abstract thoughts. ( ref ) . Piaget would depict the school age kid as less egoist. Harmonizing to his theory a kid is now able to see the universe and themselves from other positions. ( ref ) Children at this phase have a longer attending span, a better construct of clip and distance and their ability to retrieve improves. Formal Operational ( 12-15years ) : Child at this phase interrupt away from concrete objects and thought is based more on abstract rules, such as honour or democracy . ( ref ) . Full grownup rational ability is attained during this phase. For Piaget, the development of scientific logical thinking is the pinnacle of development. ( Vialle, Lysaght, and Verenikina: 2008, p55 ) . At this phase older striplings can grok math, natural philosophies and other abstract systems. ( ref ) . Some critics have faulted Piaget s theory on several evidences but largely for its vagueness. Some would state that Piaget s theory has limited our perceptual experience of kids s capabilities- peculiarly in the pre-school old ages. ( ref ) . Others may state there has been excessively much focal point on what kids ca nt make instead than what they can. Harmonizing to Siegler ( 2004 ) kids continuously gain specific cognition ; they do non undergo phase like springs in general mental ability. ( more ) However, Piaget s work has encouraged us to see kids s cognitive accomplishments as being different from those of grownups. His theory is valuable for understanding how kids think. If we understand how kids think and learn we can supply a stimulating environment that will back up their acquisition. Using Piaget s theory of cognitive development, a instructor or parent s function is to supply the stimulation and detect carefully to see when to step in and interact or alteration experiences ( ref ) . ( 125 more ) While Piaget stressed the function of ripening in cognitive development, Lev Vygotsky focused on the impact of socio-cultural factors. His Socio-cultural theory of cognitive development saw that societal interaction and linguistic communication has a major influence on the development of kids s thought. Vygotsky places great importance on the tole of important grownups such as instructors, parents and besides equals. -The zone of proximal development: Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that kids actively seek to detect new rules. However there is accent that many of a kid s most of import finds are guided by these important grownups. ( ref ) . Vygotsky realises that some undertakings can be beyond a kid s range. The kid is near to holding the mental accomplishments needed to make the undertaking, but it may be somewhat excessively complex to be mastered entirely. The zone of proximal development means kids learn with the counsel and aid of those within their environment. Parents, instructors or other sensitive health professionals will cognize that kids will necessitate aid, steering the kid to back up them in the acquisition procedure. Vygosky argued that kids s thought is extremely influenced by interactions and conversations with other peoples. If we want to understand how kids think and learn, Vygotsky proposes that we need to detect them when they are associating with others. ( ref ) . Vygotsky proposed that linguistic communication plays a critical function in larning. He noted that kindergartners frequently talk to themselves as they complete activities and undertakings. He called this Private address. Harmonizing to Vygotsky, private address enables kids to speak through jobs ( ref ) . Erik Erikson proposed a theory of development that focuses on the emotional and societal facets of development and how these impact on the overall development of the individual from babyhood to old age. ( ref ) . He called it a Psychosocial theory of development concentrating on the societal experiences we have in life that shape our psychological make- up. Erikson was a pupil of Sigmund Freud and believed that the societal interactions an single experiences has a greater influence on development. ( ref ) . Erikson identified eight phases of development over the full homo lifetime, each phase marked by a crisis. If each crisis is resolved in a positive manner so the kid would develop high ego regard and was more likely to react to the following crisis in a positive manner, developing a healthy personality. If the crisis was resolved in a negative manner so it was probably the kid would develop low ego regard and have trouble deciding future crisis. ( ref ) . His theory, peculiarly th e first four phases hold critical considerations for you as a instructor or parent, guaranting that immature kids develop and keep a positive sense of emotional well-being. -Stage one ( 0-1 old ages ) Trust V Misgiving: Harmonizing to Erikson, a critical emotional battle in babyhood is between trust and misgiving. Emotionally healthy babes come to understand they have fostering, antiphonal health professionals who meet their basic demands. They view the universe as safe and enter into swearing relationships with health professionals and subsequently, other persons. However, a grade of misgiving is besides of import to maintain babies safe from injury. But for the most portion, the emotionally healthy babe is swearing of the universe. ( ref ) A critical portion of accomplishing trust from Erikson s position is the ability of babies to come to cognize and develop an emotional tie with health professionals ; besides known as fond regard. Mary Ainsworth described attachment as the affective tie that one individual signifiers to another specific individual, adhering them together in infinite and digesting over clip ( Ainsworth: 1973 ) . Phase two: ( 1-3 old ages ) Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt: Once yearlings have developed a sense of trust with important grownups and understand their basic demands will be met, they are willing to venture off from the safety of parents and health professionals. We see this as endeavoring for control over their environment. ( ref ) . Children express their turning egos control by mounting, touching, researching and seeking to make things for themselves ( Coon A ; Mitterer: 2007 ) . Offering support, accomplishable undertakings and clip, kids are more likely to see success and therefore experience independent and develop feelings of positive self-pride. ( ref ) . However, if we are impatient, supply undertakings that are excessively hard or go unsupportive with their attempts, kids will develop feelings of shame and uncertainty about their abilities, ensuing in low ego regard. Phase three: ( 3-5 old ages ) Initiative vs Guilt: In this psychosocial theory of development, Erikson saw the preschool old ages as a clip when kids develop a sense of enterprise. Preschoolers develop an increasing sense of their ain ability and have a desire to do things go on. Through drama, kids learn to do programs and carry out undertakings. Parents can reenforce inaugural by giving kids freedom to play, inquire inquiries, usage imaginativeness and take their ain activities. ( ref ) . When encouraged, this sense of enterprise will back up the development of high ego regard. However, when kindergartners receive negative feedback, prevent drama or punished for seeking to be after and do things go on they will develop a sense of guilt, therefore developing low ego regard. ( ref. ) -Stage Four ( 6-12 old ages ) Industry vs Inferiority: Middle childhood is the clip to decide the crisis of industry versus lower status, harmonizing to Erikson. Primary school old ages are a kid s entrance into life , where kids begin to larn accomplishments valued by society. His theory provinces that as kids gain positive feedback from developing accomplishments required for their peculiar civilization, they will develop a sense of industry if they win congratulations for productive activities such as edifice, picture, cookery, reading and analyzing. This high ego esteem will actuate kids to dispute new undertakings. However, if kids receive negative feedback and have problem developing accomplishments and a sense of lower status will originate, ensuing in low ego regard and less motive to seek new undertakings. ( 160 more )

4 Rules for Setting Designations off with Commas

4 Rules for Setting Designations off with Commas 4 Rules for Setting Designations off with Commas 4 Rules for Setting Designations off with Commas By Mark Nichol Where do commas go in the vicinity of references to city and state names, or when identifying a date? Is a comma necessary before Jr. or II after a person’s name, or between a corporate name and a tag like Inc.? The rules for use of such functional punctuation follow: 1. City-and-State Designations In a city-and-state (or city-and-nation) construction, the state is set off from the city by a pair of commas: â€Å"A point near Rugby, North Dakota, is the geographic center of North America.† However, when describing an address, no comma appears between the state name or abbreviation and the ZIP code: â€Å"He listed his address as 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC 20500.† (Note that DC, like all other abbreviations consisting of two or more uppercase letters, requires no punctuation. Also, all the letters in ZIP, an acronym for â€Å"Zone Improvement Plan,† should be capitalized.) When should you list a state or nation in addition to the name of a city, and which cities are familiar enough that their location does not need to be further specified? The distinction is arbitrary and based on context: A local newspaper need not identify the state in which an obscure nearby town is located, but a publication with national distribution should provide more information about the community’s location; the approach for a book depends on whether the setting is local or the text refers to a variety of locales. Companies and organizations that regularly publish content featuring references to geographic locations should establish, as part of a style guide, a list of names of cities that stand on their own and those that should be accompanied by the name of a state or nation. 2. Month-Day-and-Year References In a month-day-and-year phrase, set the year off between commas: â€Å"Children born on February 29, 2012, will have to wait four years for their next birthday party.† If only the month and year are used, no punctuation is necessary: â€Å"Precipitation levels in April 2012 were nearly double those recorded last year during that month.† The same rule applies for holidays with years: â€Å"The caption identified the occasion as Christmas Day 2012.† No punctuation is used in the day-month-year system: â€Å"The next sample will be collected on 1 May 2012.† 3. Generational Suffixes Though those who append Jr. or Sr. (Jnr. or Snr. in British English) to their name may choose to use one or two commas (depending on whether the designation is at the end of a sentence or in its midst) to set the element off, this style is outdated and seldom applied anymore. For the sake of consistency, always omit such punctuation. Also, this usage is not, and never has been, correct in association with II, III, and the like to denote use of an identical name down through successive generations. 4. Legal Endings Likewise, Inc., Ltd., and other designations of corporate structure are variously treated according to a particular company’s preference, but the dictates of consistency overrule such choices. Of course, if you work for a company that deliberately sets the element off with punctuation, follow that style, but the importance of consistency necessitates that in your employers’ publications or documents, you refer to any other company according to the same rule even if the other company omits punctuation in its treatment of its name. (But what if that other company is a strategic partner, and you feel the urge to honor its style? Resist I won’t tell if you don’t tell.) Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Writing a Reference Letter (With Examples)Latin Plural EndingsHow to Send Tactful Emails from a Technical Support Desk

Legal Studies Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Legal Studies - Term Paper Example ose living in Hong Kong continuously for seven years, shall be deemed as permanent residents of HKSAR; as per Article 24(2) category (3) of the basic law. As per the provisions of basic law, many parents qualifying for permanent resident status in HKSAR had children born in Mainland China, who have then moved to Hong Kong and overstayed there illegally. However, they approached the Immigration department for getting recognition of their status as permanent residents of HKSAR, as well as, for issuing them the necessary identity cards for this purpose. On 11 July 1997, Provisional Legislative Council of Hong Kong enacted the Immigration Amendment #3 ordinance of 1997, while specifying the formation of a certificate entitlement scheme, which required compliance from all permanent residents of HKSAR. Accordingly, Bureau of Exit-Entry was set up for this purpose at Mainland china, for applying under this scheme at Mainland China. However, acting as per this ordinance #3, the Director of Immigration refused permission to those, who applied after 1 July 1997, while ordering them to return to Mainland China. Hence, certain test cases were sel ected, which approached the Director of Legal Aid for challenging this ordinance. The Na Ka Ling Vs. Director of Immigration is one such test case. The child was able to prove being natural resident of Hong Kong, as also being lawful child of permanent Hong Kong residents. (Hong Kong Cases, pages 296-301) While all the four test cases were consolidated for hearing before Keith J, the judge dismissed all cases, including the Na Ka Ling case, with the exception of case involving Cheung Lai Wah, on 9th Oct 1997. The test applicants appealed against the order of dismissal, in the Court of Appeal. Hence, the court was requested to address the issue of constitutionality of Ordinance #3 and validity of wedlock requirement for defining the parent-child relationship, as per the ordinance #2. However, on 2nd April, 1998, this court upheld

Cross-Culture Management - the Breakdown of Industrial Relations at HM Term Paper

Cross-Culture Management - the Breakdown of Industrial Relations at HMSI and HRM Strategy - Term Paper Example This outcome resulted due to the malfunction of both management as well as the workers. The ultimate effect was on the breakdown of the Industrial Relations. The failure of the company stemmed from a breakdown of strategic sustenance. The environment on the shop floor was made harsh by the behaviour of the top executives. For instance, the VP from Japan kicked off a worker in his leg, another worker was not allowed to go to the toilet. These instances show the failure of following the HR strategies which was to have respect for each worker stemmed from equality, trust and initiative. The strategy was to avoid partiality on workers but the scenario was formed as such that it violated the norms of this strategy (Saini, â€Å"People Management Fiasco in Honda Motorcycles and Scooters India Ltd.†). Among the three joys that the company provided, the most important one was the joy of producing high-quality products. Along with these joys, an extension was made to its mission and that was the joy of creating which was to help workers obtain happiness in their daily work. Somewhere justice was not provided to the workers due to the prevalence of cross-cultural issues (Saini, â€Å"People Management Fiasco in Honda Motorcycles and Scooters India Ltd.†). Management of the above cross-cultural issues is essential to a firm’s success but the most important trait of an organizational success is the communication portrayed at the right time in the right form. The communication approach leads to a reduction of trade union violence within the  companies.  

Characters of Romeo and Juliet Essay Example for Free

Characters of Romeo and Juliet Essay In The Prologue of Romeo And Juliet, the fate of the star-crossed lovers, the title characters, is already told. They have been doomed to take their [lives] before the play has even begun. This foretelling of what the audience is about to see displays that the play is about how and why the events unfold, and not what happens. Act Two, Scene Two is an important scene in the play, which is because this is where Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet, the two children born of the fatal loins of their feuding parents, meet for the second time, after Capulets Masquerade. They fall in love, starting the chain of fated events that cause their deaths. Before meeting Juliet, Romeo was seen to be melancholic; he was supposedly in love with Rosaline, which was unrequited. He seemed to be introspective, and have a very negative outlook; in Act One, Scene One his father, Montague, said that Romeo had been shutting himself [a]way from light in his room. Romeo appeared to have a very poetic, yet bleak, attitude to love. This is demonstrated by Romeos use of extended oxymoron in Act One, Scene One, where he talked of loving hate, and misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms. His poetic words seemed to indicate that perhaps Romeo was not in love, rather in love with the idea of being in love. He spoke of Rosaline, the object of his love, as though she was a deity, even stating she has characteristics of the goddess Diana (she has Dians wit). The goddess Diana was an emblem of chastity, and the object of Romeos affections has taken a vow of chastity. Ironically, Romeo refuses to examine other beauties, as his friend and kinsman Benvolio suggests at the end of Act One, Scene One. In Act One, Scene Five, when Romeo firsts saw, spoke to, and kissed Juliet, he still used decorative language, and said similar to what he had previously said about Rosaline. He said that Juliet doth teach the torches to burn bright, a metaphor, after first seeing her in Act one, Scene Five, after calling Rosaline the all-seeing sun in Act One, Scene Three. This seems to indicate that Romeo is too quick to announce his love, saying of Juliet what he had said not long ago about Rosaline. He did, however, denounce his previous love and say that his love of Rosaline was not comparable to his love for Juliet in Act One, Scene Five, with the rhetorical question [d]id my hear love till now? . In Act One, Scene Three Juliet is seen to be polite and respectful young girl. Her mother, Lady Capulet, who is less close to Juliet than her Nurse, tried to persuade Juliet to marry a suitor that has been chosen for her. Marriage was an honour that [Juliet] dream[ed] not of, being only thirteen years of age. Lady Capulet, in Act One, Scene Three, told her daughter that [t]he valiant Paris seeks [Juliet] for his love. Juliet seemed in no rush to fall in love and marry at such a young age, she stated she would look to like, but no more deep [ ] endart [her] eye. She appeared grounded, with no unrealistic expectations about love, and in no hurry to find a husband, despite her mothers insistence that girls younger than Juliet [are] made already mothers. When Juliet met Romeo for the first time in Act One, Scene Five, although she echoed Romeos poetic and metaphor rich language, she appeared more playful and flirtatious, telling Romeo he kiss[es] by thbook. In Act Two, Scene Two, Romeo speaks of his love for Juliet and watches her after she appears at the window. He compares her beauty to that of the sun: [it] is the east and Juliet is the sun/Arise, fair sun, when she appears at her window. Shakespeare uses this language to depict that Romeo has elevated Juliet to the stature of a goddess. This is reinstated, with Juliets beauty repeatedly being compared to (and bettering) the brightness of celestial objects; Romeo says that the brightness of her cheek would shame [the] stars. Shakespeare used more positive metaphor, repetition, and a less structured and poetic approach to Romeos speech to show that Romeos newly found love of Juliet has effected a change in his language. Romeo is presented as more happy to love, and simply be in the presence of Juliet: he is eager for her to speak again, rather than strike up a conversation instantly. When Romeo begins speaking to Juliet, after hearing her speak of her love and asking why she must love a member of the family she hates, asking wherefore [is he] Romeo? , Shakespeare wants us to understand Romeos devotion to Juliet. Romeo offers to forsake his name, saying that [h]enceforth [he] never will be Romeo demonstrating his willingness to make sacrifices for the love of Juliet. During this scene Shakespeare repeatedly uses names, or words referring to names (for example, name, or called) to show the conflict between language, the words and names, and experience, reality; Juliet states that a rose/By any other word would spell as sweet. Romeo is eager to exchange [Juliets] loves faithful vow for [his], which shows not only Romeos eagerness to prove his unchangeable love to Juliet, but his need to be loved in return. He tries to swear his love many things, including yonder blessed moon, Juliet takes vowing love much more seriously, and asks Romeo not to swear by the inconstant moon as it is too changing to vow such an important thing on. This presents Juliet as a mature girl, who tries to consider the consequences of actions and promises, whereas Romeo is completely absorbed in the idea of love. Juliet is concerned that her and Romeos love is moving too fast, saying that it is too like the lightening. Shakespeare uses this again showing Juliets rationality, but also showing that she is young, love is new to her and she is in no rush. Romeo does not appear to share these concerns; he is more concerned with loving and being loved, only satisfied by Juliets faithful vow. She is however in love with Romeo, and is not happy to see him go, [p]arting is such sweet sorrow, but is eager to see him again. Towards the end of the scene Juliets language becomes more like Romeos in eagerness to vow love, and in use of simile, comparing Romeo to a wantons bird, tethered by her love. Romeos rashness, loyalty, and need to love Juliet and be loved in return are important characteristics that will end up sealing his grim fate at the end of the play. Juliets young age, and contrasting maturity, grounding in reality and strong will in her love will be ever important, and her need to see a plan through will be important factors that help lead her towards her tragic ending. For never was there a story of more woe/Than this of Juliet and her Romeo.

A Raisin in the Sun Essay -- Character Analysis, Walter

A dream is a wish that someone hopes to fulfill in their lifetime, or in the near future. The American dream is interpreted in multiple ways, and even though this is true, the structure of the American Dream is the same. When talking about the American Dream, most people think of families thriving together and succeeding in what they want to do. The American dream is based on freedom, justice, success, and in socioeconomic terms. In A Raisin in the Sun, the Younger family have different dreams and all of them felt that their dream is more important than their families’ dreams. Most of the members of the Younger family face difficulties in achieving their dream, but only a few will accomplish this. The value and purpose of the Younger family’s individual dreams and values are crucial to them because of the effect it has on them, but their ultimate American dream is happiness for the family. Big Walter had lots of values for his race and worked very hard for those values to ensure happiness for his family. The American dream was a dim reality because of the harsh working conditions of Chicago blacks in the 1920’s (M’baye 175). This is how mama sees Big Walter, as a courageous man who fought all his life to secure a happy future for his family. As M’baye states, â€Å"Big Walter’s life was a constant struggle against a personal sorrow and a hostile economic and social world that discriminated against him† (175). Big Walter has the most dignity for his family and his actual dream is the happiness of his family. Mama always mentions Big Walter in the story every time Walter or Beneatha does something that she thinks is wrong. Mama says that Big Walter hated domestic jobs and that farming and... ... sick people—then go be a nurse like other women—or just get married and be quiet† (Hansberry 38). The value of every dream is crucial to every member of the Younger family because of the effect it has them, but it is the family dream to own a house that hold them together. At the end of the story, Mama convinced Walter that buying the house was important for the family because the thought of living in the apartment for the rest of their lives was unbearable. Big Walter had to fight and was struggling to achieve his dream of buying a house, which ended up becoming the families dream. Walter’s dream interfered with Beneatha’s dream, and the families dream. This had a major impact on everyone’s life, especially after Walter lost the money. In the end, the Younger family was all happy about Walter’s decision. That is the Younger family American dream.

Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence

Expert Systems are computer programs that are derived from a branch of computer science research called Artificial Intelligence (AI). AI's scientific goal is to understand intelligence by building computer programs that exhibit intelligent behavior. It is concerned with the concepts and methods of symbolic inference, or reasoning, by a computer, and how the knowledge used to make those inferences will be represented inside the machine. Of course, the term intelligence covers many cognitive skills, including the ability to solve problems, learn, and understand language; AI addresses all of those. But most progress to date in AI has been made in the area of problem solving — concepts and methods for building programs that reason about problems rather than calculate a solution. AI programs that achieve expert-level competence in solving problems in task areas by bringing to bear a body of knowledge about specific tasks are called knowledge-based or expert systems. Often, the term expert systems is reserved for programs whose knowledge base contains the knowledge used by human experts, in contrast to knowledge gathered from textbooks or non-experts. More often than not, the two terms, expert systems (ES) and knowledge-based systems (KBS), are used synonymously. Taken together, they represent the most widespread type of AI application. The area of human intellectual endeavor to be captured in an expert system is called the task domain. Task refers to some goal-oriented, problem-solving activity. Domain refers to the area within which the task is being performed. Typical tasks are diagnosis, planning, scheduling, configuration and design. An example of a task domain is aircraft crew scheduling, discussed in Chapter 2. Building an expert system is known as knowledge engineering and its practitioners are called knowledge engineers. The knowledge engineer must make sure that the computer has all the knowledge needed to solve a problem. The knowledge engineer must choose one or more forms in which to represent the required knowledge as symbol patterns in the memory of the computer — that is, he (or she) must choose a knowledge representation. He must also ensure that the computer can use the knowledge efficiently by selecting from a handful of reasoning methods. The practice of knowledge engineering is described later. We first describe the components of expert systems. The Building Blocks of Expert Systems Every expert system consists of two principal parts: the knowledge base; and the reasoning, or inference, engine. The knowledge base of expert systems contains both factual and heuristic knowledge. Factual knowledge is that knowledge of the task domain that is widely shared, typically found in textbooks or journals, and commonly agreed upon by those knowledgeable in the particular field. Heuristic knowledge is the less rigorous, more experiential, more judgmental knowledge of performance. In contrast to factual knowledge, heuristic knowledge is rarely discussed, and is largely individualistic. It is the knowledge of good practice, good judgment, and plausible reasoning in the field. It is the knowledge that underlies the â€Å"art of good guessing. † Knowledge representation formalizes and organizes the knowledge. One widely used representation is the production rule, or simply rule. A rule consists of an IF part and a THEN part (also called a condition and an action). The IF part lists a set of conditions in some logical combination. The piece of knowledge represented by the production rule is relevant to the line of reasoning being developed if the IF part of the rule is satisfied; consequently, the THEN part can be concluded, or its problem-solving action taken. Expert systems whose knowledge is represented in rule form are called rule-based systems. Another widely used representation, called the unit (also known as frame, schema, or list structure) is based upon a more passive view of knowledge. The unit is an assemblage of associated symbolic knowledge about an entity to be represented. Typically, a unit consists of a list of properties of the entity and associated values for those properties. Since every task domain consists of many entities that stand in various relations, the properties can also be used to specify relations, and the values of these properties are the names of other units that are linked according to the relations. One unit can also represent knowledge that is a â€Å"special case† of another unit, or some units can be â€Å"parts of† another unit. The problem-solving model, or paradigm, organizes and controls the steps taken to solve the problem. One common but powerful paradigm involves chaining of IF-THEN rules to form a line of reasoning. If the chaining starts from a set of conditions and moves toward some conclusion, the method is called forward chaining. If the conclusion is known (for example, a goal to be achieved) but the path to that conclusion is not known, then reasoning backwards is called for, and the method is backward chaining. These problem-solving methods are built into program modules called inference engines or inference procedures that manipulate and use knowledge in the knowledge base to form a line of reasoning. The knowledge base an expert uses is what he learned at school, from colleagues, and from years of experience. Presumably the more experience he has, the larger his store of knowledge. Knowledge allows him to interpret the information in his databases to advantage in diagnosis, design, and analysis. Though an expert system consists primarily of a knowledge base and an inference engine, a couple of other features are worth mentioning: reasoning with uncertainty, and explanation of the line of reasoning. Knowledge is almost always incomplete and uncertain. To deal with uncertain knowledge, a rule may have associated with it a confidence factor or a weight. The set of methods for using uncertain knowledge in combination with uncertain data in the reasoning process is called reasoning with uncertainty. An important subclass of methods for reasoning with uncertainty is called â€Å"fuzzy logic,† and the systems that use them are known as â€Å"fuzzy systems. † Because an expert system uses uncertain or heuristic knowledge (as we humans do) its credibility is often in question (as is the case with humans). When an answer to a problem is questionable, we tend to want to know the rationale. If the rationale seems plausible, we tend to believe the answer. So it is with expert systems. Most expert systems have the ability to answer questions of the form: â€Å"Why is the answer X? † Explanations can be generated by tracing the line of reasoning used by the inference engine (Feigenbaum, McCorduck et al. 1988). The most important ingredient in any expert system is knowledge. The power of expert systems resides in the specific, high-quality knowledge they contain about task domains. AI researchers will continue to explore and add to the current repertoire of knowledge representation and reasoning methods. But in knowledge resides the power. Because of the importance of knowledge in expert systems and because the current knowledge acquisition method is slow and tedious, much of the future of expert systems depends on breaking the knowledge acquisition bottleneck and in codifying and representing a large knowledge infrastructure.

Effective Employee Selection and Its Importance Essay

One of the most important decisions comes when having to select an employee to fill a job vacancy. In the current labor market, highly qualified applicants are scarce and, among the existent ones, it is hard to spot the ideal candidate. Sometimes it is so urgent that a position be filled, that a person may win the job by default, or sloppy selection criteria may be applied. A â€Å"quick fix† may ease workload for a while, but it might prove lethal for the business viability itself in the long run. Therefore, a larger attention in the selection process can provide the business with employees who will finally produce the desired results. The analysis of the employee selection process is a fairly new practice. During the 70’s, any systematic attempt to sort out skills was often unpopular (Lee, 50). This began to change during the 80’s and into the 90’s, when an estimated 80% to 90% of companies used pre-employment testing (Brindow and Spencer, 80). As Chris Lee states, â€Å"we are returning to a focus on individual competence [†¦] objective standards are coming back in both education and employment† (Lee, 49). Another survey by researchers Randall, Cooke and Smith established that 95% of employers who tried testing for screening sales candidates were still using it (Randall, 53). All the data shows the inclination of the modern businesses to highly stress on everything that will maximize the effectiveness of employee selection and, consequently, employee performance. Processing an applicant for a job normally entails a series of steps, which are determined by the size of the organization, the types of jobs to be filled or the number of people to be hired. The selection stage should be backed up by an effective recruitment process, which greatly depends on job analysis and job description. Job analysis is â€Å"a process to identify and determine in detail the particular job duties and requirements and the relative importance of these duties for a given job. Job Analysis is a process where judgements are made about data collected on a job† (HR – Guide). Its purpose is to establish and document the â€Å"job relatedness† of employment procedures such as recruitment, selection, training, compensation and performance appraisal through its product, the job description. During the selection process, the job description is used in creating an accurate  advertisement for the job and attracts the proper candidates, that is, the persons that most probably will fit for the specific job. A realistic job preview, based on an accurate job description and specification (the qualifications demanded for the job), will help applicants understand what the job entails and make more informed decisions as to whether they want to apply for the job or not. According to Gregorio Billicopf of the University of California, â€Å"selected applicants who understand both the positive and negative sides of a job, are most likely to stay and succeed†. (Billicopf, 18). After the recruitment process has been concluded and the applicants have sent their resumes, the first step of the selection process should take place; screening the resumes. CV’s provide basic information for use in the next step of the selection process and are used to screen out the unqualified applicants. For instance, if the position requires the ability to use a word processor, the resume provides a clear picture whether the person owns this ability or not. Resume screening is a standard procedure in most organizations during the selection process, despite their size, activity or culture. After the resume screen – out, the remaining applicants will be invited for an interview, which is the most important step in the selection process. It supplements information obtained in other steps in the process to determine the suitability of an applicant for a specific opening. Organizations use several types of interviews. The structured interview is conducted using a predetermined outline that is based on the pre-mentioned job analysis, while unstructured interviews are not based on any outline, and use open – ended questions. The structured interviews should be preferred over the unstructured ones, as the former helps the interviewer maintain control of the interview that all pertinent information on the applicant is covered systematically by also providing the same type of information on all interviewees. On the other hand, unstructured interviews may provide a more relaxed atmosphere, but they â€Å"lack of systematic coverage of information and are very susceptible to the personal biases of the interviewer† (Byars & Rue, 141). Organizations use three additional types of interviewing  techniques to a limited extent; the stress interview, which puts the applicant under pressure while the interviewer adopts a hostile attitude toward the interviewee in order to detect who is highly emotional and who is not, the board or panel interview, in which two or more people conduct an interview with one applicant, and the group interview in which several applicants are questioned together. A successful interview requires training in the skills, techniques and requirements of successful interviewing. All these will include an effective preparation for the interview, such as scheduling a time and location for it, review of all paperwork of the applicant and the current position description and specification and making a list of interview questions that will help in collecting the information needed for the decision. When the applicant arrives, the interviewer should help him / her feel at ease by showing him / her polite and friendly attitude and let him / her know about the organization. During the interview, the answers the applicant will give will prove to be valuable source of information. Carefully selected open – ended questions should be asked so that the answers given will help determine the suitability of the applicant to a particular position. Additionally, this will encourage the interviewees to supply more in depth information. But still, this should follow a specific and consistent outline in order to ensure a uniform method of questioning, which will be applied to all applicants. It is also important to allow silence for thinking and reflection by the applicant, so that he / she slowly reveals his / her basic competencies, which often determine the interviewee’s advantage over the rest of the applicants and affects the hiring decision. A basic competency is a knowledge, skill or behavior essential for one to function as an effective member of the specific organization and is an essential part of the selection criteria developed and reviewed before the interview questions are written (Univ. of Michigan, 38). Finally, it is important to record actual answers to questions as opposed to evaluative or conclusive comments. This will minimize subjectivity and biases, factors that may prove lethal during the hiring process, because the persons adopting them will most  probably end up with the wrong decision and an unsuitable new employee. Even though the interview will certainly tell a lot about the candidate’s qualifications, the only reliable way these qualifications can be measured are tests. The applicants can be tested before, during or after the interview. Tests can be classified as power versus speed tests, as well as written, oral or practical tests. They can measure knowledge, ability, skills, aptitude, attitude, honesty and personality (Billikopf, 20). Whatever the type of the test used, however, the integrity of test questions needs to be guarded. Many tests have undergone validation and reliability studies. The type of test to be used during the selection process depends on the size of the organization, its activity as well as the nature of the position that is to be filled. Aptitude tests measure a person’s capacity or potential ability to learn and perform a job. Some of the more frequently used tests measure verbal ability, numerical ability, and perceptual speed, spatial and reasoning ability. Psychomotor tests measure a person’s strength, dexterity and coordination. Job knowledge tests measure the job related knowledge possessed by a job applicant. Proficiency tests measure how well the applicant can do a sample of the work to be performed. The last ones are the most frequently used by employers worldwide, in all types of organizations. Other types of tests are interest tests, which are designed to determine how a person’s interests compare with the interests of successful people in a specific job, personality tests which attempt to measure personality traits, polygraph tests with the use of the polygraph, a device that records physical changes in a person’s body as he or she answers questions, and physical examinations (drug and AIDS testing or even genetic testing). The last ones are normally required only for the individual who is finally offered the job, and the job offer is often contingent on the individual passing the physical examination. â€Å"The exam is given to determine not only whether the applicant is physically capable of performing the job but also his or her eligibility for group life, health and disability insurance† (Byars, 143). Because of the expense, physical examinations are usually one of the last steps in the selection process. The final step in the selection process is choosing one individual for the job. There are usually more than one qualified persons, but if the previous steps in the selection process have been performed properly, the chances that a value judgment based on all the information gathered will be successful improve dramatically. Because people sometimes falsify their credentials and backgrounds, though, it is important to check references. Additionally, people sometimes interview well but have a record of not actually performing as well as they have led the interviewer to believe. Therefore, it is important to check out any areas in which there are doubts or uncertainties. Reference checks are also a form of insurance. â€Å"The hour or two it takes to conduct a reference check is far less time than the time it will take to deal with performance, attitude or behavior problems† (Univ. of Michigan, 36). The people that the responsible person for the selection has to contact are former supervisors, people whose names the candidate has given as work references to establish the working relationship, people that the employer knows personally who have worked with the candidate and people recommended by any of the above who are said to know the candidate’s work. However, some employers may hesitate to provide negative information about a former employee out of fear of lawsuits. Only people known and trusted can be relied on to give an accurate picture of a potential employee, and, even then, people have different perceptions and personalities, factors that must be considered when weighing employer references. After the evaluation process has been completed, the one most suitable applicant will finally be selected. Recruiting and selecting the right people for the organization is a challenge, and every situation is unique. Innovation, persistence and the ability to communicate the strengths of the business and the benefits of the positions offered, will attract high quality employees. Selecting among them will be hard, but if the selection process steps are implemented properly, the final decision will prove to be really beneficial to the organization. No matter who makes the final decision – the human resource department, the manager of the department or even the owner of the firm -, this decision should be backed up by the correct procedure, otherwise the consequences  could be extremely costly, if not lethal. All managers should be trained on the selection process for the benefit of the organization. WORKS CITED Billikopf, Gregory. â€Å"Labor Management in Agriculture: Cultivating Personnel Productivity†. University of California. 2003. p. 2-5, 18-23. Brindow Peter, Spencer Leslie. â€Å"When Quotas Replace Merit, Everybody Suffers†. Forbes. Feb 1993. p. 80. Byars Lloyd, Rue Leslie. â€Å"Human Resource Management†. 8th edition. Mc Graw – Hill. p. 141-144Job Analysis: An Overview. The HR – Guide. Oct 2002. May 2006. < http://www.job-analysis.net/G000.htm>Lee, Chris. â€Å"Testing Makes a Comeback†. Training Vol. 25. Dec 1988. p. 49-50. M-Pathways Employment Steering Committee Sub-Group Report. â€Å"Conducting a Successful Employee Selection Process†. University of Michigan. Apr 2001. p.20-35. Randall, James. â€Å"A Successful Application Of The Assessment Center Concept To the Salesperson Selection Process†. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management. May 1985. p. 53.

Gestalt Therapy

Gestalt Therapy What are the important therapeutic goals of Gestalt theory? Gelstalt therapy is an experiential type of psychotherapy whose main emphasis is on personal responsibility. In addition, the main focal point of gelstalt therapy is the client-therapist relationship, the clients experiences in the present, the social contexts and the environment of the clients life, as well as the self-regulating changes people make due to the overall predicament (Corey, 2013). Among some of the founders of the theory include Frederick Perls and Laura Perls.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Gestalt Therapy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Gelstalt therapy enables a client to differentiate between feelings, actions, and perceptions. As such, patients can act to reshuffle their attitudes. The therapy process demands that patients and their therapist exercise dialogue in their actions. This is aimed at enabling clients to comes to terms with th eir actions, what prompts them to perform them, and how best to improve the situation. The goals of the therapeutic process are to ensure that the process is more candid than the content. More emphasis is placed on what is taking place and what is being felt than what took place in the past (Bloom, 2009). Gestalt therapy is highly reliant on the interpersonal relationship between a therapist and his client. Such a relationship develops and is nurtured as therapy continues. Gelstalt therapy could also be described as a form of experimental approach because it involves intentional and experimental actions. There are several ways through which the gestalt therapists’ function. For example, the therapist utilizes an exploration process, as opposed to use of behavior modification. Unlike other forms of therapy, the gestalt therapist ensures that therapists meet their patients and guide them in active works to ensure that their awareness is maximized. The goal is to ensure that the y help the patient grow and develop a sense of autonomy, in addition to increasing their conscious levels. While conducting the process, the therapist is supposed to be active and exude excitement (Bloom, 2009). It is paramount that they are also direct and honest with their clients in their communication. This way, both the therapist and the patient have their own sense of judgment in regards to how they feel, what they can see and what they hear. The patient is further able to determine the kind of person that the therapist is, as there is open and direct communication among them. This enables the patient to grow (Bloom, 2009). Moreover, the client is in a position to ascertain how he/she engages with the therapist, and this is a big step towards self-awareness. A therapist needs to fully understand the clients situation. He/she can do this by assessing the clients non-verbal as well as verbal communication.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a matter of fact, nonverbal communication has been seen to offer more information about the true character of an individual. For this reason, the therapist must endeavor to read the clients body language including posture, gestures, hesitations, and movements. This is because body language will enable the therapist to decipher what the client is undergoing. It is important though to note that in this kind of therapy, the therapist does not offer a curative process to the patient but rather, a process of self-discovery and awareness. At the end of the therapy, patients will have developed a new label and sense of self-awareness. Therefore, they are left to grow by themselves. Reference List Bloom, D. (2009). The Phenomenological Method of Gestalt Therapy: Revisiting Husserl to Discover the Essence of Gestalt Therapy. Gestalt Review, 13(3), 277-295. Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and ps ychotherapy (9th edition). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

German Christmas Pickle Tradition

German Christmas Pickle Tradition Look closely at a decorated Christmas tree and you might see a pickle-shaped ornament hidden deep within the evergreen branches. According to German folklore, whoever finds the pickle on Christmas morning will have good luck for the following year. At least, thats the story most people know. But the truth behind the pickle ornament (also called a  saure  gurke or Weihnachtsgurke) is a little more complicated. Origins of the Pickle Ask a German about the custom of  Weihnachtsgurke and you may get a blank look because in Germany, there is no such tradition. In fact, a survey conducted in 2016 revealed more than 90 percent of Germans asked had never heard of the Christmas pickle. So how did this supposedly German tradition come to be celebrated in the U.S.? The Civil War Connection Much of the evidence for the historical origins of the Christmas pickle is anecdotal in nature. One popular explanation links the tradition to a German-born Union soldier named John Lower who was captured and imprisoned at the notorious Confederate prison in Andersonville, Georgia. The soldier, in ill health and hungry, begged his captors for food. A guard, taking pity on the man, gave him a pickle. Lower survived his captivity and after the war began the tradition of hiding a pickle in his Christmas tree in remembrance of his ordeal. However, this story cannot be authenticated. The Woolworths Version The holiday tradition of decorating a Christmas tree did not become commonplace until the last decades of the 19th century. Indeed, observing Christmas as a holiday was not widespread until the Civil War. Prior to that, celebrating the day was largely confined to wealthier English and German immigrants, who observed customs from their native lands. But during and after the Civil War, as the nation expanded and once-isolated communities of Americans began mixing more frequently, observing Christmas as a time of remembrance, family, and faith became more common. In the 1880s, F.W. Woolworths, a pioneer in merchandising and the forerunner of todays large drugstore chains, began selling Christmas ornaments, some of which were imported from Germany. Its possible that pickle-shaped ornaments were among those sold, as youll see in the following story. The German Link There is a tenuous German connection to the glass pickle ornament.  As early as 1597, the small town of Lauscha, now in the German state of Thuringia, was known for its glass-blowing industry. The small industry of glass-blowers produced drinking glasses and glass containers. In 1847 a few of the Lauscha craftsmen began producing glass ornaments (Glasschmuck) in the shape of fruits and nuts. These  were made in a unique hand-blown process combined with molds (formgeblasener Christbaumschmuck), allowing the ornaments to be produced in large quantities. Soon these unique Christmas ornaments were being exported to other parts of Europe, as well as England and the United States of America. Today, a number of glass makers in Lauscha and elsewhere in Germany sell pickle-shaped ornaments.

Legal Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Legal Questions - Essay Example In analysis of the information the enactment of the FTDA, courts have struggled for applying the customary for trademark dilution for the reason that of the expansive language used in the law. (Koo, 2004) Under these laws, initially the Home Specialists should consider talking to the individuals responsible for TechEquip and Homer.com. The fact to ponder upon is when Tech equips registered as Homer. Com, the office did not object them on the name. It is very natural for people at Home Specialists to feel that the Tec equip is using their goodwill somehow. But, it does not really fall into a court case category. Both of the parties should meet up in friendly terms and try and convince and inform each other of any apprehensions if they feel exist. If in the case that Home Specialists drag the latter party to court. Then they would have to prove Tech Equip.'s deliberate attempt to use their goodwill. This would not be of any use. Because if the whole issue would have been objectionable the people at the registrars office would have discussed the same with Tec Equip. The whole case can be deemed as just mere confusion under the FTDA Act. Ans 2) By Trade dress is actua... But the fact is, that, there can be an instance of confusion or just mere a mistake. The trade dress infringement act entails a provision and space that these acts be taken into consideration. Damages should only be awarded in case of the occurrence that Levec Inc, can prove a deliberate attempt by Tarvainen to use their goodwill. Only if they are proven right in their claim should they receive damages. It is very well possible that in the case of Levec Inc not being able to prove any thing; it might just be considered a fault or a mistake. The Protection in relation of any specific trade dress is comparable as the protection and safeguard of trademarks. Trade Dress Infringement Violation can occur unintentionally also. (Wiemelt, 2003-2006) Ans 3) the Law 'Act on the Protection of Personal Information' is where this should be categorized. Article 1, the rationale behind this Act is the safeguard and protection of the civil rights as well as their interests of individuals considering the fact that the personal information can be useful to other parties. Proper handling of this personal information is an essential. Basically all the articles in this act entail the following idea, that the personal information of individuals that are being used by certain business entities, by permission is being used for business purposes. The government has the responsibility of making sure that the business entity in particular should safeguard that data. The state rather is also responsible for safeguarding this information.According to this act, if the business entity plans to alter the entity handling this personal information, their must be public notifications of such an act. Meaning all should be informed. With